1 Marlone D. Henderson, Szu-chi Huang, and Chiu-chi Angela Chang, “When Others Cross Psychological Distance to Help: Highlighting Prosocial Actions toward Outgroups Encourages Philanthropy,”
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48, no. 1 (2012): 220–25.
2 Zara Khan, “Reviving the Waqf Tradition: Moral Imagination and the Structural Causes of Poverty”, Yaqeen, July 2, 2020, https://yaqeeninstitute.org/zarakhan/reviving-the-waqf-tradition-moral-imagination-and-the-structural-causes-of-poverty
3 Khalil Abdurrashid, “Financing Kindness as a Society: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Philanthropic Institutions
(Waqfs),” Yaqeen, January 9, 2020,
https://yaqeeninstitute.org/khalil-abdurrashid/financing-kindness-as-a-society-the-rise-fall-of-islamic-philanthropic-institutions-waqfs/.
5 “Giving USA 2018: The Annual Report on Philanthropy for the Year 2017,” Giving USA, 2018; “Research About Giving in Canada,” Imagine Canada,
http://sectorsource.ca/research-and-impact/giving-research.
6 See
https://www.ispu.org/why-muslims-give/ for demographics of Muslim giving.
7 René Bekkers and Pamala Wiepking, “Who Gives? A Literature Review of Predictors of Charitable Giving Part One: Religion, Education, Age and Socialisation,”
Voluntary Sector Review 2, no. 3 (2011): 337–65.
8 Karen Wright, “Generosity vs. Altruism: Philanthropy and Charity in the United States and United Kingdom,”
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 12, no. 4 (2001): 399–416.
9 Joanne R. Smith and Andreè McSweeney, “Charitable Giving: The Effectiveness of a Revised Theory of Planned Behaviour Model in Predicting Donating Intentions and Behaviour,”
Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 17, no. 5 (2007): 363–86.
10 Pamala Wiepking and Beth Breeze, “Feeling Poor, Acting Stingy: The Effect of Money Perceptions on Charitable Giving,”
International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 17, no. 1 (2012): 13–24.
11 David John Hart and Andrew Robson, “Does Charity Begin at Home? National Identity and Donating to Domestic versus International Charities,”
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 30, no. 4 (2019): 865–80.
12 Arjen De Wit and Rene Bekkers, “Exploring Gender Differences in Charitable Giving: The Dutch Case,”
Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 45, no. 4 (2016): 741–61.
13 H. Daniel Heist and Danielle Vance-McMullen, “Understanding Donor-Advised Funds: How Grants Flow During Recessions,”
Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 48, no. 5 (2019): 1066–93.
14 Jonathan Meer, David Miller, and Elisa Wulfsberg, “The Great Recession and Charitable Giving,”
Applied Economics Letters 24, no. 21 (2017): 1542–49.
15 Kirsten A. GrØnbjerg and Anjali Bhatt, “Nonprofit Paid Employment in Social Assistance Update Report, Indiana 1995-2018” (PhD diss., Indiana University, 2020).
16 Laura Deitrick, Tessa Tinkler, Emily Young, Colton C. Strawser, Connelly Meschen, Nallely Manriques, and Bob Beatty, “Nonprofit Sector Response to COVID-19,” The Nonprofit Institute, University of San Diego, 2020.
17 M. Theis, “One in Five Donors Has Stopped Giving, Survey Says,”
The Chronicle of Philanthropy, May 6, 2020,
https://www.philanthropy.com/article/one-in-five-donors-has-stopped-giving-survey-says/.
18 Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, no. 1803;
Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, no. 2308.
19 Al-Majmū’ sharḥ al-muhadhdhab (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 2000), 6:424.
20 Muhi Khwaja, “Harnessing the Power of Muslim Philanthropy,”
Philanthropy Journal, August 12, 2019,
https://pj.news.chass.ncsu.edu/2019/08/12/harnessing-the-power-of-muslim-philanthropy/.
21 Shadiya Mohamed Saleh Baqutayan, Magda Ismail A. Mohsin, Akbariah Mohd Mahdzir, and Aini Suzana Ariffin, “The Psychology of Giving Behavior in Islam,”
Sociology International Journal 2, no. 2 (2018): 88–92.
22 Based on comparisons of data pre- and post-Ramadan 2020, collected by Yaqeen.
23 Jedrzej Pawel Bialkowski, Ahmad Etebari, and Tomasz Piotr Wisniewski, “Piety and Profits: Stock Market Anomaly during the Muslim Holy Month,” Finance and Corporate Governance Conference, 2010.
24 Katayoun Najafizadeh, Fariba Ghorbani, Sajjad Hamidinia, Mohammad Ali Emamhadi, Mohammad Ali Moinfar, Omid Ghobadi, and Shervin Assari, “Holy Month of Ramadan and Increase in Organ Donation Willingness,”
Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation 21, no. 3 (2010): 443.
25 George F. Loewenstein, Elke U. Weber, Christopher K. Hsee, and Ned Welch, “Risk as Feelings,”
Psychological Bulletin 127, no. 2 (2001): 267; Drazen Prelec, “The Probability Weighting Function,”
Econometrica (1998): 497–527.
26 Jennifer S. Lerner and Dacher Keltner, “Beyond Valence: Toward a Model of Emotion-Specific Influences on Judgement and Choice,”
Cognition & Emotion 14, no. 4 (2000): 473–93; Rajagopal Raghunathan and Michel Tuan Pham, “All Negative Moods Are Not Equal: Motivational Influences of Anxiety and Sadness on Decision Making,”
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 79, no. 1 (1999): 56–77.
27 Kristine Buhr and Michael J. Dugas, “The Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale: Psychometric Properties of the English Version,”
Behaviour Research and Therapy 40, no. 8 (2002): 931–45.
28 Michel J. Dugas, Andrea Schwartz, and Kylie Francis, “Brief Report: Intolerance of Uncertainty, Worry, and Depression,”
Cognitive Therapy and Research 28, no. 6 (2004): 835–42.
29 Tatiana V. Kornilova, Maria A. Chumakova, and Sergey A. Kornilov, “Tolerance and Intolerance for Uncertainty as Predictors of Decision Making and Risk Acceptance in Gaming Strategies of the Iowa Gambling Task,”
Psychology in Russia 11, no. 3 (2018): 86; David Schröder and Gail Gilboa Freedman, “Decision Making Under Uncertainty: The Relation between Economic Preferences and Psychological Personality Traits,”
Theory and Decision, 2020, 1–23.
30 Elena Cettolin, Arno Riedl, and Giang Tran, “Giving in the Face of Risk,”
Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 55, no. 2 (2017): 95–118.
31 Ivana Stojcic, Lu Kewen, and Ren Xiaopeng, “Does Uncertainty Avoidance Keep Charity Away? Comparative Research between Charitable Behavior and 79 National Cultures,”
Culture and Brain 4, no. 1 (2016): 1–20.
32 Peter B. Smith, “To Lend Helping Hands: In-Group Favoritism, Uncertainty Avoidance, and the National Frequency of Pro-Social Behaviors,”
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 46, no. 6 (2015): 759–71.
33 Troy Davig and Craig Hakkio, “What Is the Effect of Financial Stress on Economic Activity?,”
Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Economic Review 95, no. 2 (2010): 35–62.
34 Juston Parrott, “How to Be a Mindful Muslim: An Exercise in Islamic Meditation,”
Yaqeen, November 21, 2017,
https://yaqeeninstitute.org/justin-parrott/how-to-be-a-mindful-muslim-an-exercise-in-islamic-meditation.
35 Howard Berenbaum, Keith Bredemeier, and Renee J. Thompson, “Intolerance of Uncertainty: Exploring Its Dimensionality and Associations with Need for Cognitive Closure, Psychopathology, and Personality,”
Journal of Anxiety Disorders 22, no. 1 (2008): 117–25.
36 Kristen M. Kraemer, Emily M. O’Bryan, and Alison C. McLeish, “Intolerance of Uncertainty as a Mediator of the Relationship between Mindfulness and Health Anxiety,”
Mindfulness 7, no. 4 (2016): 859–65; David A. Lovas and Arthur J. Barsky, “Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Hypochondriasis, or Severe Health Anxiety: A Pilot Study,”
Journal of Anxiety Disorders 24, no. 8 (2010): 931–35.
37 Michael J. Zyphur, Wen-Dong Li, Zhen Zhang, Richard D. Arvey, and Adam P. Barsky, “Income, Personality, and Subjective Financial Well-Being: The Role of Gender in Their Genetic and Environmental Relationships,”
Frontiers in Psychology 6 (2015): 1493.
38 Eileen Y. Chou, Bidhan L. Parmar, and Adam D. Galinsky, “Economic Insecurity Increases Physical Pain,”
Psychological Science 27, no. 4 (2016): 443–54.
39 Richard G. Netemeyer, Dee Warmath, Daniel Fernandes, and John G. Lynch, Jr., “How Am I Doing? Perceived Financial Well-Being, Its Potential Antecedents, and Its Relation to Overall Well-Being,”
Journal of Consumer Research 45, no. 1 (2018): 68–89; Soyeon Shim, Jing J. Xiao, Bonnie L. Barber, and Angela C. Lyons, “Pathways to Life Success: A Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being for Young Adults,”
Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 30, no. 6 (2009): 708–23.
40 Roger Bennett and Rita Kottasz, “Emergency Fund‐Raising for Disaster Relief,”
Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 9, no. 5 (2000): 352–60.
41 Bodo B. Schlegelmilch, Alix Love, and Adamantios Diamantopoulos, “Responses to Different Charity Appeals: The Impact of Donor Characteristics on the Amount of Donations,”
European Journal of Marketing 31, no. 8 (1997): 548–60.
42 Leon Zolotoy, Don O’Sullivan, Myeong-Gu Seo, and Madhu Veeraraghavan, “Mood and Ethical Decision Making: Positive Affect and Corporate Philanthropy,”
Journal of Business Ethics, 2020, 1–20; Evelyne J. Dyck and Gary Coldevin, “Using Positive vs. Negative Photographs for Third-World Fund Raising,”
Journalism Quarterly 69, no. 3 (1992): 572–79.
43 Al-Muʿjam al-kabīr lil-Ṭabarānī, no. 1618.
44 Emily Crawford Solberg, Ed Diener, Derrick Wirtz, Richard E. Lucas, and Shigehiro Oishi, “Wanting, Having, and Satisfaction: Examining the Role of Desire Discrepancies in Satisfaction with Income,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 3 (2002): 725.
45 Agata Gasiorowska, “The Relationship between Objective and Subjective Wealth Is Moderated by Financial Control and Mediated by Money Anxiety,”
Journal of Economic Psychology 43 (2014): 64–74.
46 ERSI was a cross-sectional online survey of Muslims worldwide and how they experienced Ramadan amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were recruited via email and social media. The full sample included 3,800 Muslims worldwide.
47 Although the number of women is very high, the difference in giving behavior between genders was not significantly different (
t=1.77)
48 Kirk Warren Brown and Richard M. Ryan, “The Benefits of Being Present: Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84, no. 4 (2003): 822.
49 We used confirmatory factor analysis to show that the three mindfulness items loaded on a common factor of trait mindfulness. See Table 3 for factor loadings.
50 Kristine Buhr and Michael J. Dugas, “The Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale: Psychometric Properties of the English Version,”
Behaviour Research and Therapy 40, no. 8 (2002): 931–45.
51 Stata 15 was used to estimate the complete path model. Model fit was first assessed using the chi-squared statistic (χ
2), as it is the only inferential statistic in SEM for model fit. Additionally, we used two alternative fit indices, the root mean error of approximation (RMSEA) and the comparative fit index (CFI). RMSEA values below .08 and CFI values greater than .95 indicated good fit. There were cases of missing data across the survey items. Missing data on income was substantial (24%). On average, those with missing data on income were significantly higher educated (
t = 5.6,
p < .001) and donated less (
t = 2.2,
p < . 05). We accounted for the missing data by utilizing full-information maximum likelihood (FIML).
52 Estimated total donations by assuming each person gave the average value of the category they selected (e.g., $75 if in the $50–99 category and $375 if in the $250–499 category). Since our highest value was $5000+, we assumed no one in that group gave more than $5000, which is likely a severe underestimation.
53 The model fit the data well. See Table 2 for fit statistics. The measurement model of three mindfulness items represented a common factor.
54 Natalie Karelaia and Jochen Reb, “Improving Decision Making through Mindfulness,”
Mindfulness in Organizations: Foundations, Research, and Applications, 2015, 256–84.
55 Osman Umarji and Hassan Elwan, “Embracing Uncertainty: How to Feel Emotionally Stable in a Pandemic,”
Yaqeen, March 30, 2020,
https://yaqeeninstitute.org/osman-umarji/embracing-uncertainty-how-to-feel-emotionally-stable-in-a-pandemic.
56 Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, no. 2588.
58 Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī,
no. 6369.
59 Paul D. Sweeney, Dean B. McFarlin, and Edward J. Inderrieden, “Using Relative Deprivation Theory to Explain Satisfaction with Income and Pay Level: A Multistudy Examination,”
Academy of Management Journal 33, no. 2 (1990): 423–36.
60 Mitchell J. Callan, N. Will Shead, and James M. Olson, “Personal Relative Deprivation, Delay Discounting, and Gambling,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101, no. 5 (2011): 955.
61 Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, no. 6125;
Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, no. 2963.
62 Here are a few verses that encourage donating in the Qur’an:
- And spend in the way of Allah and do not throw [yourselves] with your [own] hands into destruction [by refraining]. And do good; indeed, Allah loves the doers of good (2:195).
- Believe in Allah and His Messenger and spend out of that in which He has made you successors. For those who have believed among you and spent, there will be a great reward (57:7).
- The example of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah is like a seed [of grain] which grows seven spikes; in each spike is a hundred grains. And Allah multiplies [His reward] for whom He wills. And Allah is all-Encompassing and Knowing (2:261).
- Those who spend their wealth [in Allah’s way] by night and by day, secretly and publicly—they will have their reward with their Lord. And no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve (2:274).
- And let not those who [greedily] withhold what Allah has given them of His bounty ever think that it is better for them. Rather, it is worse for them. Their necks will be encircled by what they withheld on the Day of Resurrection. And to Allah belongs the heritage of the heavens and the earth. And Allah, with what you do, is [fully] Acquainted (3:180).
- And whatever you give for interest to increase within the wealth of people will not increase with Allah. But what you give in zakāh, desiring the countenance of Allah—those are the multipliers (30:39).
- Only those are the believers who have believed in Allah and His Messenger, and afterward doubt not but strive with their wealth and their lives for the Cause of Allah. Those! They are the truthful (49:15).
- And spend [in the way of Allah ] from what We have provided you before death approaches one of you and he says, “My Lord, if only You would delay me for a brief term so I would give charity and be among the righteous” (63:10).